Micro-financing the poor

Poor can initiate the income generating activities and repay the loan. Micro-financing has been an important part of the economic development process, that is intended to uplift the economic status of the poor.  

Under progress.

Forest Conservation Pays to Communities

Sooner or later, community contribution pays. Conservation and sustainable management of the forest increases carbon stock. Carbon stock reducing green house gas emission contributing to climate change mitigation. Voluntary market pays for carbon stock. According to news published in Kathmandu Post on 14 June 2011, the payment for carbon stock ranges from US$ 3 to 5 in the current market, that could go to even US 20 per tone of carbon sequestration. This payment is made for additionality the communities make for conservation and sustainable use. A pilot project in Nepal (ICIMOD among others) has the experience that the communities have been able to increase 2.67 tonnes of carbon per hectare of forest in a year. In monetary term, the community could earn US$ 8 to 10.7 per hectare per year. Now the concern is how best that sum of money could be used for the benefit of the marginalised communities so that they would be encouraged to undertake conservation and sustainable use.

Community Based Watershed Management: Factors Activating Users for Post-Project Management in the Western Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B. (2008).  Community Based Watershed Management: Factors Activating Users for Post-Project Management in the Western Hills of Nepal. Lap Lambert Publishing House, Koeln, Germany.

Most often externally induced local institutions fail as the support is withdrawn. This poses what motivates users to continue managing the project support. This book examines organizational structure, function, internal resource and external linkage of project induced watershed management user groups. Collective action due to common interest leads to better participation of users in activating group functions including regular operation and maintenance. With such initiatives, the active user groups have accrued apparent benefits. Active groups have better training and exposures. The activeness of a group largely depends on how far its members benefit personally and directly from collective actions. The book concludes that the externally induced collective actions that cannot provide direct benefits will not be managed after the withdrawal of support. Users’ contribution to implementation and operation and their rights would enhance collective action and accrual of benefits. Linking the groups with local government, instituting multi-purpose groups and providing training would enhance the regular management of project support.

Natural versus Plantation Forest under Community Management in Nepal's Far-Western Tarai

Forest will continue to degrade if indigenous people and local community's rights to sustainable forest management are not ensured. Community forest management is a viable regime to address this issue. However, there are limited studies on differences among Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) in terms of population, forest condition and resource availability. The CFUGs with natural or plantation forest in Kailali and Kanchanpur of Nepal's far-western Tarai have varied experiences in conservation and use of forest products. They are diverse in terms of population composition and resource endowment. The CFUGs with natural forest are more resourceful than those with plantation forest. The CFUGs with plantation forest have high population pressure per household and unit area of CF. Men and hill migrants have dominated the decision making positions and processes more in the CFUGs with natural forest. The CFUGs with natural forest are relatively in the better-off position in terms of forest area available per household, forest product available from the mature forest and income generation from distribution of forest products outside and with in the CFUGs. The CFUGs with plantation forest less availability of forest products from young forest resulting in high population pressure on government managed forest and other sources to meet their demands. Thus, the government should devise separate policies to evaluate and support the 'natural' and 'plantation' forests. Analysis of demand and supply of forest products in CFUGs and their networking will help meet the demand of various segments of the CFUG and also neighbouring communities. The forest authorities and federations of CFUGs have important role to analyse demand and supply, and make provisions for distribution of forest products within and outside CFUGs. External support to provide biogas and improved cooking stoves would be imperative to reduce forest product consumption. Promotion of non-timber forest products in both natural and plantation forests would help conserve forest, generate income and develop ownership among the users for sustainable forest management. Promotion of agroforestry and private forestry would help increase the supply of forest products and adopt livestock stall feeding practice. The provision of leasehold and private property rights and their transferability within and outside CF management regimes will help benefit the poor for sustainable resource management.

This article is under progress.

Capacity building with the financial support

A Case Article by Basan Shrestha

Capacity building coupled with the financial support helps develop entrepreneurship. Chandra Bahadur Thapa, a young resident of Amarbasti, Basisebichawa-9, Kanchanpur is busy these days in his carpentry workshop and providing service to the communities. This has been possible with the entrepreneurship training he attended and the loan he received from Mohana Laljhadi Area Saving and Credit Cooperative Ltd., Baisebichawa. He earns two to three hundreds per day for his support to the households in the community. Income from his workshop is extra. He has hired two trainees to support him in his workshop and pays one hundred rupees per day to each of them.

In 2007, Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP) had organised the entrepreneurship development training for the poor community members to develop their knowledge and skill on entrepreneurship. The training was conducted with the expectation that entrepreneurship will help increase income and reduce dependency of communities on forest resources contributing to biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods. Mohana Laljhadi Area Coordination Committee had selected the participants of the training based on the outcomes of participatory well-being ranking.

After receiving training, Chandra received a loan of seven thousand rupees from Mohana Laljhadi Area Cooperative at the interest rate of eight percent per year so long as the loan has to be paid back within two years. Chandra purchased carpentry tools such as driller and saw with that sum of money, which had been helpful to scale up his profession. He has already payed back the money lent from the cooperative within the stipulated time. "I am encouraged to well equip my workshop. For that purpose, I have requested Mohana Laljhadi Area Cooperative for second loan", says Chandra. He is a member of Amar Gokul proposed Community Forest User Group and actively participates in forest conservation as well.

On the whole, building capacity is necessary but not sufficient to develop entrepreneurship. Community people adopt a profession if it is suitable to one's interest and skill and rewarding economically, socially and environmentally. The entrepreneurship that is based on mobilising local resource persons and materials will be more sustainable.

Biogas-An Effective Means of Reducing Fuelwood

A Case Article by Basan Shrestha

"Biogas has reduced the consumption of fuelwood as a cooking fuel to less than half ", says Alkaiya Chaudhari, a user of Chetana Women Community Forest User Group (CFUG) in Geta-3, Kailali. Alkaiya adds, "Previously we used to consume six to seven bhari of fuelwood per month (1 bhari is around 30 kg). Now, we need only three bhari and biogas is sufficient for cooking food for our family of 11, including four children." She owns two cattles, one buffalo and a biogas attached toilet for the supply of gas.

In February 2009, Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP) provided a sum of five thousand rupees each to 13 households in Geta VDC to attach their toilets to biogas plant. Alkaiya is one them. The CFUG members identified those 13 households based on their demand, need and capability. To date, WTCLP has supported 217 households for biogas attached toilets along Mohana corridor in Dhangadhi municipality, Geta and Malakheti VDCs. WTLCP chanelised all supports to the communities through Mohana Kailali Community Forest Coordination Committee, Dhangadhi.

Biogas improves the environment in the homesteads. It reduces the flow of smoke in the kitchen and homestead improving the health of family member, particular the women who cook food. It lessens work burden to women to clear black dust in the cooking put. "Biogas reduces women's workload in other forms as well because women most often collect fuelwood from the forest", says Laxmi Joshi, the former Treasurer of Chetana Women CFUG. Women in that community spend two to three hours a day to collect fuelwood from Laljhadi forest in Kanchanpur. Women can take care of themselves and spare their saved time from reduced collection of fuelwood with their family members in their kitchen yards and homesteads.

On the whole, biogas is environmentally friendly, economically profitable and socially acceptable. It is effective to reduce the consumption of fuelwood. Attaching toilet to the biogas plan augments the supply of gas. Biogas has been an effective means to reduce women's drudgery. The increasing awareness of people and desire to install biogas attached toilet reveals that they are sensitive towards biodiversity conservation and improving livelihoods. The knowledge on appropriately preparing slurry and using the biogas will be an advantage to maximise the benefit from biogas.

Analysing Equity in Common Property Resource Management

Common Property Resource (CPR) management plays an important role in efficient use, equitable allocation and sustainable conservation, which does not lead to a 'tragedy of commons'. However, the studies on CPR management have questioned the equity outcomes. This paper reviews the analytical frameworks, equity in terms of both procedural and distributional aspects, and attributes conditioning CPR management. The analytical frameworks conceptualise CPR management as the pattern of interaction which are conditioned by the technical and physical attributes of the resource, the decision making arrangements between the resource users. This interaction produces a certain outcome in terms of costs and benefits for the resource users, differences in their interests and in terms of efficiency and equity of resource use. The review reveals that resources are heterogeneous in terms of species diversity, use and exchange values guided by interests from the local to central levels. The communities are heterogeneous in terms of class, caste/ethnicity, gender, their power relation, norms, values, access to resource. The paper concludes that CPR management should be contextualized to heterogeneous resource and socio-political setting of the community for crafting institution that facilitate equitable decision making processes and distribution of benefits to all segments of the community. Understanding the concepts and issues on CPR management has implications to policies, strategies and programmes to ensure sustainable CPR management.

Participatory Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation: An Approach to Sustainable Development

Participation of different groups excluded from the development process has been an important issue at times when Nepal is engaged in drafting a new constitution and discussing on the federal structure. With the declaration of a Federal Democratic Republic Nepal. indigenous people and local communities have demanded to establish their rights to and benefits from managing water, land and forest resources. They have long been managing the natural resource and sustainably using for their livelihoods. Besides, they have also contributed to mitigating global carbon emission. They can not claim their rights without sustainable resource management policies, programmes and development process. The development process will be sustainable if the excluded groups actively participate in planning, monitoring and evaluation (PME) processes. Thus, the policies, strategic and operational plans, and programmes need to prioritise participatory planning, monitoring and evaluation (PPME) as an approach to sustainable development.

This article is under progress.

Community Forest Management Practices in Far-Western Lowlands of Nepal

Shrestha, B. (2008). Community Forest Management Practices in Far-Western Lowlands of Nepal. Banko Janakari 18(2):25-34. Kathmandu, Nepal: Department of Forest Survey and Research.

Wider discussions are held as to the contribution of community forestry program in Nepal to improve the forest condition and meeting the forest product requirements. This paper presents findings from a study of six Community Forest User Groups in far-western lowlands of Kailali and Kanchanpur in Nepal. The groups with natural and plantation forests have varied experiences in forest conservation and distribution of products. Some groups are resourceful in terms of availability of forest products from the natural forests. Others with plantation forests are product scarce from their own and depend on government managed forest and other sources to meet their demands. The role of concerned government authorities and federation of groups would be instrumental to analyse demand and supply, and make provisions for distribution of forest products within and outside groups and district.

Differentiating Active and Passive User Groups for Watershed Management in the Western Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B. (2005). Differentiating active and passive user groups for watershed management in the western hills of Nepal. In Integrated Watershed Management: Studies and Experiences from Asia, ed. by M. Zoebisch, K.M. Cho, S. Hein and R. Mowla: 95-111. Thailand: Asian Institute of Technology.

 

The status of a user group (active vs. passive) largely depends on how far its members benefit personally and directly from collective action. Unless and until users are convinced of the apparent benefits, they are not going to participate actively in collective action. This issue is very relevant to rural subsistence economies, in which people are compelled to expand farmlands and destroy forest lands to secure food for consumption, fuelwood for domestic energy supply, fodder collection, and for livestock grazing. The situation is further aggravated by scarce off-farm employment opportunities causing seasonal and permanent migration. The types and levels of benefits from collective action depend on a multitude of factors and their inter-relationships. In the case of community plantation, the users accrue forest resources as the direct benefit, besides the communal benefit of land stabilization. Collective action is largely determined by the level of dependence of users on the available resource and accessibility to other sources of forest products to meet their household requirements. The level of dependency also depends on the biophysical suitability of the area in which community plantation is undertaken. Responsible users will consequently conduct regular operation and maintenance of the resources, which will enhance benefits. This situation was applicable to active user groups. For gully and landslide control, users are concerned with the protection of cultivated land from landslides, so they can benefit from reclamation of cultivated land. This will ultimately raise their level of food production and food security in a subsistence rural economy. Thus project intervention for controlling landslides and formation of gullies close to private lands has a significant impact on the users. With the facilitation of training and visits, users can continue their collective efforts when project support finishes.

Participatory Well Being Ranking: A Summary of Process and Outcomes

SAGUN (Forestry and Buffer Zone) Program (2005). Participatory Well Being Ranking: A Summary of Process and Outcomes. SAGUN Program, CARE Nepal / RITI / WWF / RIMS Nepal.
I prepared this document based on the results from the project districts and published to the credit of SAGUN (Forestry and Buffer Zone) Program.

This paper briefly summarizes the process of participatory well being ranking (PWBR) conducted to identify the poor households in the community forestry user groups (CFUGs), their support areas and facilitate them in their capacity building and livelihood improvement. It presents the outcomes of PWBR conducted in a total of 591 CFUGs in Banke, Bardia, Kailali, Dhading and Dolpa covered by SAGUN (Forestry and Buffer Zone) Program. Of the total 77,126 user households, 19%, 40% and 41% households belong to well-off, medium and poor categories respectively. In 2005, a total of 327 CFUGs supported poor households with one or more support activities. This paper presents the issues, challenges and lessons learned from PWBR.

Rich Picture Technique: A Tool for Participatory Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation

Orientation on Rich Picture Technique
June 2008

Basan Shrestha
Monitoring and Evaluation Officer
Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP)[1]

1. Introduction

The orientation on participatory monitoring and evaluation (M&E) to WTLCP field staffs had been the need of the day to develop their knowledge and skills to practice participatory techniques/tools in project planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Basan Shrestha had attend the three week long Participatory Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation training in The Netherlands, which was organised by Wageningen International from 4 to 22 February 2008. Basan had developed the action plan during the training. Considering its action points to orient the field staffs, the M&E orientation events were organised at WTLCP Field Offices, Dhangadhi and Bardia (Thakurdwara) in far and mid-western Nepal on 23 May and 4 June 2008 respectively. A total of 10 WTLCP field staff participated in two events of M&E orientation facilitated by Basan Shrestha. The participants included Community Motivators, Social Mobilisers and Program Officer.

The main objective of orientation was to increase knowledge and skills of participants on participatory M&E, particularly rich picture technique and information need identification to monitor and evaluate the results of WTLCP. The orientation focused on 1) situation analysis (stakeholders, bio-physical setting, infrastructure, institutions including organisations, legislation and policies, economy, market opportunities and socio-culture; issues and problems); 2) rich picture technique (meaning, steps to draw a rich picture, importance and writing a story about the rich picture); 3) information need identification (performance/ change area assessment criteria-effectiveness, efficiency, impact, relevance and sustainability).

2. Process

Presentation and group work methods were used to orient the participants on rich picture technique and information need identification. Rich picture is a drawing of a situation that illustrates the main elements and relationships that need to be considered in trying to intervene to create some improvement. It has the potential to illustrate the richness and complexity of a situation, by means of symbols, texts and pictures. Rich pictures can be developed in a participatory manner to assess past, present and future situations. In this regard, the participants of Field Office, Dhangadhi selected the case of Shankarpur VDC-1, 2 and 3 in Kanchanpur; and those from Field Office, Bardia selected the case of Guptipur village, ward number 1, Manau VDC, Bardia and prepared rich pictures of the current situation (2008 AD) and future situation/ aspired future (by 2012 AD, the year WTLCP will come to an end) (see Pictures 1 to 4). Besides, they prepared descriptive notes (written stories) elaborating the contents covered by those rich pictures. Specific observations are presented under sub-topics below:

3. Outcome

3.1 Rich Pictures and Notes

Current Situation (2008 AD) of Shankarpur VDC-1, 2 and 3, Kanchanpur

§ Around three hundred households in ward numbers 1, 2 and 3
§ Around 95 households belong to Rana Tharu ethnic group (Janajati)
§ Ram Laxman Community Forest User Group (proposed and registered) covers the forest area of about 3.5 hectares benefiting 178 households
§ Ramban Community Forest User Group (proposed but not registered) covers the forest area of about five hectares benefiting all three hundred households
§ Siddhababa religious forest (proposed) covers an area of four hectares benefiting all three hundred households
§ Four thousand seedlings planted at the rate of two thousand each in Ram Laxman community forest and Siddhababa religious forest with the support of WTLCP in 2007
§ Sarju 52 variety of paddy is widely cultivated in about 80 hectares of land
§ WTLCP/ LI-BRRD has planned to undertake rice varietal trials in 2008
§ 12 poor households have started river bed farming with WTLCP support in 2008
§ WTLCP has supported to establish VDC level Community Forest Coordination Committee Shankarpur Multipurpose Cooperative Limited and Biodiversity Conservation and Development Committee. 450 households in the VDC have become the member of the cooperative. WTLCP is supporting the community through these organisations. The same cooperative is mobilising the revolving fund supported by WTLCP.
§ Communities are receiving agriculture, livestock and forestry services from government line agencies in coordination with these organisations and community groups.
§ Mainly external resource persons are mobilised in capacity building activities such as training, workshops, orientations and tours.

Future Situation / Aspired Future (by 2012 AD) of Shankapur VDC-1, 2 and 3, Kanchanpur

§ Forest density increased (condition improved) with plantation
§ Number of flora and fauna species increased
§ Flood affected area decreased with plantation and width of river decreased
§ Environmental condition improved and supply of forest products increased
§ Biodiversity and economy friendly rice and wheat varieties developed and released
§ Seed production increased
§ Farming of newly developed varieties increased
§ Production increased
§ Number of varieties cultivated
§ River bed farmers cultivated vegetable, NTFP and cash crops in their or leased lands
§ Community income increased from fish farming in ponds and lakes
§ Income increased from off-farm employment opportunities
§ WTLCP support decreased
§ Local institutional capacity increased
§ Local resource materials and resource persons extensively mobilised

Current Situation (2008 AD) of Guptipur, ManauVDC-1, Bardia

§ 105 households in Guptipur, of them 25, 10 and 70 households belong to Dalit, Magar and other caste/ethnic groups.
§ They are the members of Sagarmatha User Group
§ WTLCP has been supporting since 2007. The supports were for irrigation pump, school toilet support and solar lamp (tuki) for 12 households and goat keeping (1 household). WTCLP support the user group and the community through Asaregaudi User Committee
§ This community has one community forest (Deurali Community Forest)
§ Communities have around 28 hectares (42 Bigaha) of Khet (lowland/ irrigated land) and more than 3 hectares of Bari (upland/ unirrigated land)
§ Rice varieties namely IP 22, Masuli, Sabitri and Makawanapur are widely cultivated
§ In terms of organisational development, currently there are one primary school, one user group, one community forest user group

Future Situation/ Aspired Future (by 2012 AD) of Guptipur, ManauVDC-1, Bardia

§ Plantation undertaken in river bed
§ Flood affected areas decreased
§ Number of flora species increased in community forest
§ Number of wild animals increased
§ Electric fencing installed along Geruwa river bed
§ Human and wildlife conflict decreased
§ Crop damage due to wildlife decreased due to cultivation of Mentha
§ Production increased due to adoption of improved technologies
§ Irrigation facilities improved
§ Irrigated area increased
§ Off-season farming increased
§ Income of community increased
§ Participation of women and men increased
§ Communication facilities improved
§ High school established due to organisational development
§ Medical facilities improved
§ Toilets are extensively constructed and used
§ Coordination among different organisations improved
§ Institutional capacity of organisations improved

3.2 Information Need Identification

Different stakeholders would judge differently if the project is performing well. Thus, it is required to involve stakeholders in identifying performance questions (information needs). Five criteria namely effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, impact and sustainability are important to monitor and evaluate that a project is performing well and to ensure that the desired changes are taking place. In this regard, the participants, based on the rich picture of aspired future (2012 AD), identified the change areas and indicators as given in the table below:
Change area
Indicator
Biodiversity conservation
Number of species increased
Number of wild animals increased
Number community forest increased
Number of private forest increased
Deforestation decreased
Forest area increased
Improved livelihoods
Income increased due to vegetable cultivation, seed production and sale of forest products
Production due to improved farming technology increased
Irrigation facility increased
Seed production (area, quantity and variety) increased
Area of off-season vegetable farming increased
Human and wildlife conflict decreased/ minimised
Human and elephant conflict decreased/ minimised due to electric fencing
Number of human death due to human and wildlife conflict decreased
Number of human casualties due to human and wildlife conflict decreased
Health condition improved
Malnutrition decreased
Institutional development
Coordination between community groups and other organisations increased
Capacity developed due to training, workshop, visit and orientation
Self-dependency increased
Community development
Level of educational institutes increased
Communication improved
Health facilities improved

3.3 Participants' Jugement on M&E Orientation

At the end, the participants evaluated the M&E orientation as follows:
Strengths
Areas to be improved
Content
§ The M&E orientation useful to understand and practice M&E, new concepts such as rich picture and its importance
§ This M&E technique/ tool helps review the status of the program and provides guidelines
§ Rich picture helps facilitate in program implementation effectively based on the information about current situation
§ Rich picture about future situation helps in successful implementation of the program, as it foresees the future
§ It helps reveal the importance of documents and project outcomes
§ Knowledge on M&E will help improve proposal writing and activity implementation
§ Too much information is included in the rich pictures - picture will be clear if limited information could be included
§ Will such types of materials be feasible at the field level?

Process
§ Good presentation and facilitation skill
§ Clarity on subject matter (theoritical and practical)
§ Clarifying technique with clear examples considering time, subject matter and participants' views
§ Use of media to orient
§ Clarity on language
§ Practical
§ Increasing the use of photo/ picture and materials could increase the clarity and practice among the participants
§ Would be effective if all staffs have participated in those events
§ Limit discussion on the same topic
§ Orientation time should be long (Sufficient time should be given for orientation)
§ Pre-planning is required
§ Such events should be conducted from time to time
§ Participants have paid less attention

4. Conclusion

The participants remained active to acquire knowledge and skills on participatory M&E techniques and tools. The orientation assured that rich picture development process could be an effective M&E techniques. However, the application of the learning is an important concern to improve the monitoring and evaluation system. Regular follow-up by the concerned authorities and orientation to field staff is required to encourage the participants to practice the learning so that they can effectively contribute to improving the monitoring system for better achievements of project goal and objectives. Staff orientation is an important process, which requires improving the learning and sharing environment.

[1] Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation has been implementing since January 2006 Western Terai Landscape Complex Project in three districts namely, Kanchanpur, Kailali and Bardia of far and mid-western Nepal, with financial and technical support from United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV), World Wildlife Fund for Nature Nepal (WWF), Bioversity International, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD).

Case Stories-Conservation, Livelihoods and Development

Construction of a Trench Contributed to Increase Grass, Fodder and Crop Production

Basan Shrestha, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, WTLCP
Bhola Prasad Chaudhary, Ranger, District Forest Office, Kanchanpur

“Until past one and half years, the plants were heavily destroyed by the open grazing of cattle in the forest patches that we have conserved. The unrestricted movement of people in forest patches had also destroyed saplings. As such, the crops in private lands were damaged, almost to half, due to open grazing. Now, with the construction of the trench along both sides of the community trail, the grasses in community forest have vigorously grown and the crop production in private lands has also increased”, says Shyampati Chaudhary.

The users of Ganga Jamuna Women Community Forest User Group (CFUG) including Shyampati have benefited from the increased production of grass, fodder and crops. The proposed Ganga Jamuna Women CFUG is located in Hanumantole, Amarbasti, ward number 9, Baisebichuwa VDC in Kanchanpur district. It is composed of 92 Chaudhary (Tharu) households benefiting a total of 610 people. The CFUG has been managing 20 hectares of degraded forest patch since the group was formed in October 2004. The formal recognition of the CFUG by District Forest Office (DFO), Kanchanpur is still awaited due to boarder conflict with the proposed Lab Kush CFUG in Raikabarbichuwa VDC in Kanchanpur. Shyampati Chaudhary looks happy with thatch grass and fodder in the community forestThe Western Terai Landscape Building Program (WTLBP), the frontloading support to Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP), had provided the financial support of Rs. 9,000 to the CFUG to construct the 900 meter long trench along one side of the community trail close to the community forest and the user group mobilized the labour force. The users, with the technical assistance of the DFO staff, identified the potential site based on the extent of open grazing and proximity of the settlement. Being encouraged with the financial support, the users contributed labour to construct additional 900 meter long trench along other side of the trail close to the private land. As a result, they were able to construct a total of 1,800 meters long trail along both sides of the trail. The whole process required 1,105 person days from 85 households mobilized at the rate of one person from each household, within a period of 13 days in May 2005. 60% of the total labour force included women. According to the market price, the daily wage for women and men were Rs. 80 and Rs. 100 respectively, so that the total cost of construction was estimated at Rs.97,240. Thus, the total amount supported by WTLBP accounted 9% of the total cost and users’ contribution accounted 91%. This excluded the implements arranged by the users themselves to dig the trench.

“Previously, we had to purchase thatch grass and fodder at Rs. 30 per bhari (around 15 kg) from Pachkadiya, which were brought from Dudhuwa National Park in India. But, now these resources are easily available in our CFUG at Rs.10. As a result, both our labour and money have been saved”, says Rampati Chaudhary, the former Treasurer of the CFUG.

The construction of the trench has contributed to control open grazing resulting in natural regeneration of plant species such as Jamun (Eugenia jambolana), Khair (Acacia catachu) and Sisoo (Dalbergia sissoo) and increased production of grass, fodder and crops. The regular maintenance of the trench is an important aspect to consider to further discourage open grazing and movement.
9 October 2006 (23 Ashwin 2063)

Two Villages directly benefited from a Wooden Bridge

Basan Shrestha, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, WTLCP
Sundar Lal Chaudhary, Local Resource Person, Gola VDC, Bardia

121 households of Banjariya and Syaulibazar villages in ward number 5, Village Development Committee (VDC), Bardia have directly benefited from a wooden bridge constructed over the Tapara canal in Banjariya. ‘Prior to construction of this bridge, it was very difficult for school going children to cross the Tapara canal and their parents, particularly women, who had to carry their children and cross the canal”, says Dharma Chand, Badghar, the village leader who had led the construction of the wooden bridge.

Banjariya Pragati User Group in Banjariya, ward number 5, Pashupatinagar VDC had taken the lead role to construct the wooden bridge. Parks and People Project (PPP) and Participatory conservation Program (PCP), supported by United Nations Development Program (UNDP), had formed the group in 1999 at the settlement level and facilitated to affiliate it to Buffer Zone Management Council (BZMC) in 2003. The group is composed of 65 households, with more than three quarters Chaudhary households. Similarly, Syaulibazar User Group, another beneficiary group in the same ward was also involved in the construction of the bridge. This group, which was formed and leagalized following the same process, is composed of 56 households belonging to Chaudhary and Dalits communities.

The Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP) had provided the financial support of Rs. 40,000 to Banjariya Pragati User Group in January 2006 to construct the wooden bridge. Besides, PCP and Brinda User Committee, the VDC level coordination committee, had supported Rs. 8,000 and Rs. 5,000 respectively to the group for the same purpose. With a total of Rs. 53,000 the group managed to saw the timber poles and planks, pay for skilled labours and purchase nails and associated materials to fix the timber poles and planks.

The user groups had received around 520 cubic feet of timber (20 oxen carts) from Bardia National Park and Manau Forest User Group for poles, planks, railing and other types of wooden support to construct the 70 feet long and 12 feet wide wooden bridge. They had collected around 100 oxen carts of stones from Geruwa river to construct barbed wire gabion walls at four foundation corners of the bridge. Men were mainly involved in the collection of timber and stones and women had supported to carry them to the place of construction. Two user groups had mobilized human labour from 121 user households at the rate of one person from one household for 2845 person days at the rate of Rs. 80 per person per day, so that the total cost of human labour was estimated at Rs.227,600. “It was very difficult to cross the canal in Banjariya, which has emanated from Geruwa river, during rainy season due to rise in water level.

Mainly, children from Banjariya studying in Namuna Primary School in Syaulibazar had difficulty to cross the canal. Similalry, students from Syaulibazar had difficulty to cross the canal to attend Pashupati High School in Pathraiya, ward number 8. The bridge construction has eased people’s movement. In addition, it has become very easy to transport grains like rice, wheat, maize and mustard for grinding in the mill located in Pathriya. This canal had many times flown people while crossing…….”, say the users.

The wooden bridge has made easy accessibility of the people. The regular maintenance of such infrastructures is an important aspect to be considered for continued benefits and encouragement to the community initiated development.
19 November 2006 (3 Mangsir 2063)

Trail Improvement Contributed to Community Development[1]

Bhim Bahadur Thapa
Kalikich User Committee
Beldandi VDC, Kanchanpur
[1] This article was edited and translated by Basan Shrestha, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, WTLCP.

Until past few days, the passers-by going through this community trail used to scold ‘The people of this village are so lazy that they do not even improve their trails.’ In fact, the level of the trail passing through Chauanni village bordering between ward numbers 7 and 8 in Beldandi Village Development Committee (VDC) of Kanchannpur district was about two feet lower than the ground level. Water logging was the main problem even in days with little rain. The passers-by used to put off their shoes and slippers to pass through the trail. In some cases, it caused etching and wounds on the feet. Particularly, the school going children had to attend their classes with soaked bags and dresses. It was usual that the passers-by carrying grains like rice, wheat, maize and mustard for grinding in the mill used to scold the villagers due to soaking and spoilage of their grains.

Considering the poor condition of the trail, Jaya Kalika User Group and Chandan Basti Sisters Group in coordination with Kalikich User Committee in the buffer zone of Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in Beldandi VDC, Kanchanpur mobilised the community labor worth of Rs. 9,600 to carry out the earth work to maintain the level of the two kilometre long trail in February 2007. This included 16 persons mobilised for 6 days,
including 81 men days and 15 women days at the rate of Rs. 100 per day for both men and women. Afterwards,
WTLCP in coordination with Buffer Zone Management Committee provided a financial support of Rs. 100,000 for gravelling over the five hundred meter long trail.

Around 1200 households have directed benefited from the trail improvement. It has made easy accessibility of the people contributing to community development. The regular maintenance of such community assets is an important aspect to be considered for continued benefits to the community and encouragement to the community-initiated development.
15 Falgun 2063 (27 February 2007)

Goat Farming: A Potential Source of Cash Income

Basan Shrestha, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, WTLCP
Bhola Prasad Chaudhary, Ranger, District Forest Office, Kanchanpur

“The first she goat kid is already 11 months old. She is already pregnant and will give birth in next two months. By July 2007, I have planned to repay back the loan of Rs. 1,500 to our group by selling the goat”, says Sita Chaudhary, a user of Ganga Jamuna Women Community Forest User Group who has started goat farming as a potential source of cash income.

The proposed Ganga Jamuna Women Community Forest User Group (CFUG) is located in Hanumantole, Amarbasti, ward number 9, Baisebichuwa VDC in Kanchanpur district. The group is composed of 92 Chaudhary (Tharu) households. Western Terai Landscape Building Program, the frontloading support to Western Terai Landscape Complex Project (WTLCP), had provided the financial support of Rs. 50,000 to the CFUG in July 2005 to purchase goats. The CFUG formed the goat farming group of 30 users, who were selected based on their household economic status, capacity and willingness to rear goats. Then, the CFUG provided a total sum of Rs. 45,000 at the rate of Rs. 1,500 to each user to purchase the goats, so long as the users would repay back an interest free loan to the group within 24 months. The CFUG retained the remaining sum of Rs. 5,000 for medical support to the goats as required.

Sita adds, “I added Rs. 100 to the loan of Rs. 1,500 that I received from the group and purchased a pregnant she goat at the cost of Rs. 1,600 from the local market in July 2005. She gave birth to a she goat kid in October 2005.The mother goat gave second birth to already dead two kids in April 2006.This time both mother goat and first borne she goat are pregnant. Both of them will give birth during November 2006. In 2 years of support, we will have at least 4 goats, including 2 mature she goats and 2 goat kids of 9 months. I am very encouraged to see the increasing number of goats, which will be the source of cash income to us”. By July 2007 in 2 years of support by the program, Sita will have goats worth of around Rs. 5,000 at the current market price. She has managed to supply the fodder from her private lands and community forest. Her family of 4 members has managed their time to rear the goats. Last year, she increased the production of winter vegetables such as radish, turnip, broadleaf mustard and cauliflower in her land by making good use of goat dung.

Overall, goat farming has the potential to develop as an income generating activity (IGA) at the household level. The increased production of fodder in both community and private lands will help encourage the people to undertake goat farming. But, the major concern is how to ensure equitable access of different segments of the users to such resources, and how can poor be identified and supported in an equitable manner to improve their livelihoods. Another important concern is that the daily wage earners are among the poors, who were not encouraged to keep goats for lack of human resource and time to rear goats. Other potential IGAs should be explored in active participation of such daily wage earners to improve their livelihoods. Development of community level veterinary service and resource persons will help promote goat keeping as a viable source of cash income of rural poor.
9 October 2006 (23 Ashwin 2063)

Income from Vegetable Cultivation[1]

Kanaiya Rana
Dandabichuwa, Ward Number 2
Baisebichuwa VDC, Kanchanpur
[1] This article was documented and translated by Nirmal Rana, Secretary, MLACC and Basan Shrestha, Monitoring and Evaluation Officer, WTLCP.

I am Kanaiya Rana, a resident of Dandabichuwa, Ward Number 2, Baisebichuwa Village Development Committee (VDC) in Kanchanpur district. I own 15 kattha (around 0.5 hectare) of land. I used to grow rice, maize and wheat in this land, which was not sufficient to financially support my family for the whole year. I used to fill up this gap from wage labor in the village, from which I earned Rs. 80 per day of labor.
I had an opportunity to attend WTLCP supported nine-day long ‘Entrepreneurship development training’. Mohana Laljhadi Area Coordination Committee (MLACC) had coordinated and conducted the training in two stages from 14 to 16 November 2006 and 29 November to 4 December 2006 respectively. During the training, I had prepared the plan to cultivate vegetable as an income generating activity.

In support of my plan, I received a loan of ten thousand rupees from WTLCP chanalised through LACC in January 2007. I need to pay pack the loan within two years, by January 2009 with an interest at the rate of 8 percent per year. I invested that sum of money for the purchase seeds, fertilizers and insecticides to cultivate onion, chilly and lauka (gourd) in 3 Kattha (0.1 hectare) of land. I could produce around 300 kg of onion, which I sold in the local market in Kalika VDC at the rate of Rs. 14 per kg and also bartered some with wheat in the community. Similarly, I have estimated to produce around 120 kg of dried chilly which cost Rs. 100 per kg.

Prior to this, I used to cultivate vegetables only for household consumption. Now, I feel that I can mobilise my own skill and resource to cultivate vegetables as an income generating activity. I am much encouraged with the support and wish to continue growing vegetables for generating income.
17 Ashad 2064 (1 July 2007)

Public Hearing and Public Auditing in the Community Forestry User Groups: A Summary of Process, Outcomes and Lessons Learned from the SAGUN Program

Maharjan, M.R., B. Shrestha and SAGUN Forestry Buffer Zone Team. (2006). Public Hearing and Public Auditing in the Community Forestry User Groups: A Summary of Process, Outcomes and Lessons Learned from the SAGUN Program in Nepal. Insight: Notes from the Field. Issue 1, 2006, Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Community Forestry Training Center for Asia and the Pacific (RECOFTC).

Although Community Forestry in Nepal has been very successful in improving forest condition and meeting the forest product requirements of user groups, there is a growing concern whether the community forestry programme has been successful in practicing good governance for its equitable and sustainable management, and empowering poor, women and marginalized groups. Taking these issues in view, Strengthened Actions for Governance in Utilization of Natural Resources (SAGUN) Program is making all its efforts through various interventions to create awareness and build up confidence of user groups to institutionalize good governance in community forestry. Public Hearing and Public Auditing (PHPA) is one of the major interventions carried out in order to promote good governance practices among user groups.

On the whole, the PHPA has been effective in promoting good governance practices at the group level in terms of transparency and accountability among executive committee members as well as general users. This has not only helped improve the financial management system in the groups, but has also helped in improving social inclusion in terms participation and representation of women, Dalits and the poor in the decision making process, including their access to natural resources and equitable sharing of the benefits. More importantly, the PHPA has been very effective in contributing towards an anti-corruption drive at the group level. This paper presents a summary of process, major outcomes and key lessons learned from PHPA as practiced in the SAGUN Programme in Nepal.

Most Significant Change Technique: An Approach to Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation

Shrestha, B. and M. Adhikari (2005). Most Significant Change Technique: An Approach to Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation. CARE Ko Pratibimba, CARE Nepal Newsletter, October 2005, Vol. 11.

Empowering marginalized people and influencing policy decisions in their favour have been the primary concerns of recent development interventions in the programmatic shift from fulfilling the needs to addressing the denial of rights of marginalized people. These sorts of capacity building and empowerment programs have been effective to enhance the knowledge, capacity and confidence of target groups on their rights, responsibilities and good governance practices. These qualitative changes are worth documenting for future programming and widely sharing with the stakeholders. Thus, emphasis is being increasingly laid on the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system that considerably focuses on qualitative inquiry and analysis. In this regard, this paper intends to share the process of applying the Most Significant Change (MSC) technique, as a story telling approach to participatory M&E of qualitative changes due to program interventions. The paper concludes that the MSC technique has an extensive scope to apply in learning based organizations that are increasingly implementing capacity building and empowerment programs to address the underlying causes of poverty and social injustice. Reviewing of existing M&E system with the provision of qualitative inquiry and analysis, strengthening capacity of staff, and existing mechanism are the major areas of focus for the operationalization and institutionalization of qualitative inquiry approaches like MSC technique.

Equity and Gender Consideration in Watershed Management: An Experience with Community Development and Forest / Watershed Conservation Project Phase-II

Shrestha, B. (2003). Equity and Gender Consideration in Watershed Management: An Experience with Community Development and Forest / Watershed Conservation Project Phase-II in Western Hills of Nepal. A paper presented at the national seminar on "Management of Common Property Resources and Equity: Exploring Lessons from Nepal" held on 28 April 2003. Kathmandu, Nepal: ForestAction Nepal.

In Nepal, caste, ethnicity and gender remain important issues. Despite constitutional rights for equality, disparities based on caste, ethnicity and gender persist. This case study examines the caste/ethnic and gender dimension of the structure of people's groups as reflected in representation in committees and leadership development, meetings and decision-making, and training and study tours. The article concludes that a sense of ownership of local people to protect-supported activities leads to better participation in meetings, decision-making and other collective activities, irrespective of caste, ethnic and gender differences.

Assessment of Sustainable Soil Management Activities by Farmers and Collaborating Institutions: Experiences with Projects from 1999 to 2001

SSMP (2002). Assessment of Sustainable Soil Management Activities by Farmers and Collaborating Institutions: Experiences with Projects from 1999 to 2001. Compiled by B. Shrestha. SSMP Document No. 85. Kathmandu, Nepal: Sustainable Soil Management Programme, Helvetas, Nepal.

It is increasingly realized that sustainable development cannot be achieved without full participation of local poeple in decision making at every stage of development process including planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. In this regard, Sustainable Soil Management Program (SSMP) had conducted three year projects from 1999 to 2001 with 20 collaborating institutions (CIs) including Non-Governmental Organizations, Governmental Organizations and Community Based Organizations. After completion of projects, farmer and CIs had conducted an evaluation of projects to assess the effects on livelihood of farmers. At the farmer level, evaluation team of farmers (ETF) associated with one CI had assessed the project effect on farmers associated with another CI, referred to as ETF evaluation. At the CI level, CIs had assessed the project effect at farmers and at CIs themselves, referred to as CI self-evaluation. Besides, the CIs had prepared project completion reports. Thus, a desk study was carried out to summarize the experiences with sustainable soil management technologies, methods and approaches in one document. This document summarizes the experiences with the practice, adoption situation, opportunities and challenges of sustainable soil management technologies viz. farm yard manure, legumes, fodder and forage, vegetable, citrus, coffee, ginger, potato and groundnut. The experiences with sustainable soil management methods namely group approach, leader farmers to group farmer approach, couple farmer approach and farmer led experiments have well been documented. Working process and capacity building of collaborating institutions for institutional development on sustainable soil management have been summarized. The document discusses on evaluation by team of farmers and CI self-evaluation as project evaluation approaches.

What Makes Some Project Induced Watershed Management User Groups More Active than Others?

Shrestha, B. and G. B., Thapa (2002). What Makes Some Project Induced Watershed Management User Groups More Active than Others? Banko Jankari 12 (2), Kathmandu, Nepal: Department of Forest Survey and Research.

Most often externally induce local institutions have failed with the withdrawal of support. This raises a question, what makes some user groups more active than others? This article examines organizational structure and function, resource mobilization and support system of project induced watershed management user groups. Collective action due to common interest leads to better participation of users in activating group functions including regular operation and maintenance. With such initiatives, the active user groups have accrued apparent benefits. Active groups have better training and exposures. The activeness of a group largely depends on how far its members benefit personally and / or directly from collective actions. The article concludes that the externally induced collective actions that can not provide direct benefits to the users are not going to be regularly managed after the withdrawal of external support.

Factors Differentiating Active and Passive User Groups Induced for Watershed Management in the Western Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B. (2002). Factors Differentiating Active and Passive User Groups Induced for Watershed Management in the Western Hills of Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis. Thailand: Asian Institute of Technology

Most often donor-initiated local institutions have failed as soon as the external support is withdrawn. Taking this fact into consideration, a study was carried out to identify the factors differentiating active and passive user groups induced by JICA/HMG Community Development and Forest/Watershed Conservation Project first phase that was implemented from 1994/95 to 1998/99 in three Village Development Committees of Kaski district in the Western Development Region of Nepal. The factors were categorized into four dimensions viz. organizational structure, functional system, internal resource and support system, and external support and linkage system. A total of 17 user groups were formed for community plantation, landslide control, water source protection and trail improvement were purposively surveyed at first stage. Of which 8 and 9 group were respectively, designated as active and passive in a participatory discussion, on the basis of regular operation and maintenance, supported by holding of meeting and group fund. A total of 172 user households, 86 from active groups and 86 from passive groups were surveyed by using simple random technique at the second stage. All qualitative variables under consideration were indexed and T-test was employed to compare the significance of indices between active and passive groups.

The active groups were better than the passive groups in terms of members' perception on need and of objectives of user groups, roles and responsibilities and feeling of collective actions. The users' feeling of collective actions was the most important factor among them. Active groups had better operated and maintained the activities supported by the project, because of accruing considerable benefits both at the personal and community levels. Forest resources and reclamation of cultivated land formed the major benefits accrued by the users. The users' deep sense of collective actions and level of benefit accrued were directly associated with level of dependency on the conserved resources and inter-linkage between public and private lands. The members of active groups perceived to have better linkage with external organizations and opportunities of attending training and visit. Benefit was the most important factor differentiating active and passive user groups among all factors. Among all active user groups, gully and landslide control user groups were best in terms of all the dimensions under consideration. Moreover, the members of those groups had accrued the highest level of benefits both at personal and community levels.

The study confirms that the status of a user group (active vs. passive) largely depends on how far its members benefit personally and directly from collective actions. This issue is highly persistent in rural subsistence economy. Hence, it is concluded that the collective actions that can not provide direct benefits to the users are not going to be regularly operated and maintained after the withdrawal of the project. The landslide and gully control activities have greater potential to sustain if users accrue benefits at personal and community levels from collective actions.
The awareness creation, encouraging the users for sharing the cost of implementation and maintenance, providing users' rights would be instrumental to enhance users' feeling on collective actions and the level of benefits. These would further be fortified through the efforts in adding economic value to community plantation. Linking the user groups with local government, formation of broad-based / multi-purpose community organizations and providing training and visit opportunities to the users could enhance the local level institutional development initiatives, so that the groups could pursue regulation operation and maintenance of the activities supported by the project even after the withdrawal of the external support.

Soil Fertility Management: Farmers’ Practices and Perception in the Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B., S. L. Maskey, R. K. Shrestha, B. P. Tripathi, Y. G. Khadka, R. C. Munankarmi, E. M. Bhattarai and S. P. Shrestha (2000). Soil Fertility Management: Farmers’ Practices and Perception in the Hills of Nepal. Technical Paper No. 2000/(4). Kaski, Nepal: Agriculture Research Station, Lumle.

The inefficiency in the utilization of soil nutrients leads to declining soil fertility and crop productivity. Despite considerable knowledge on efficient soil fertility management technologies, technology adoption by farmers seems to be limited due to several factors like biophysical, socio-economic and institutional environments. This paper presents the farmers' practices and perceptions in soil fertility management in integrity across the hills of Nepal. The farmers' practices on the use of chemical fertilizers, farm yard manure (FYM) / compost. Organic derived materials (as, oil cakes, etc.), green manure, mulching and in-situ manuring and their perceptions on the underlying benefits, problems and reasons for not practicing are presented. Besides, other soil fertility enhancing techniques, livestock holding scenario, labour issues and research/farmers' needs are presented. The lack of awareness about recommended doses of chemical fertilizers, improved methods of preparing FYM/compost, the importance of applying other types of organic materials, improved practices of green manuring, and importance of mulching is high. Low economic status of the farmers leading to the shortage of capital limits the use of the chemical fertilizers. Difficulty/cumbersome is creating a decline in the practice of in-situ manuring. Low economic status of the farmers resulting in a shortage of capital causes the hindrance to holding of livestock. Women are mainly responsible for soil fertility management. Soil testing facilities/mechanisms, followed by farmers' training on improved practices of soil fertility management and recommendation of adoptive crop/cropping patter by soil type were the major researchable constraints and farmers' needs. Thus, research and development implications lie in wider dissemination of available technologies to improve soil health, enhance yield potential and efficiency of local practices, encourage farmers in the use of locally available and organic derived materials, green resources and the practice of in-situ manuring through appropriate technical back-ups. It would be worthwhile to reform some institutional practices to encourage farmers in increasing their livestock holding capacity. Due consideration should be given to women farmers towards reducing their drudgery and constraints they face. Due consideration should be given to their invaluable knowledge on soil fertility management. Farmers' accessibility to soil testing facilities, farmers' training/demonstration and research on soil-specific adoptive cropping pattern need to be enhanced.

Adoption of Improved Rice: The Farmers’ Perspective in the Western Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B. and H. S. Bhandari (2000). Adoption of Improved Rice: The Farmers’ Perspective in the Western Hills of Nepal. Technical Paper No. 2000/2. Kaski, Nepal: Agriculture Research Station, Lumle.

A study on identification of farmers' adoption criteria for the selection of improved varieties in normal, spring and upland rice production systems was carried out at 11 sites of different types viz. agro-ecological research (AER), outreach research (OR) and on-farm sites located in varied agro-ecological domains ranging from river basin to high hill environments within the research command area of Agriculture Research Station, Lumle. The field surveys were carried out from November 1999 to June 2000 by using focus group discussion and household survey techniques. For household survey 20% households were sampled by using stratified proportionate sampling technique based on food self-sufficiency. The findings of the study revealed that in normal rice, the varietal diversity was high because of farmers' need to meet irrigation, soil nutrients, grain and straw requirements. The average areas occupied by improve normal and spring rice at the study sites were 42.8% and 41% respectively. In case of upland rice, no single improved variety was reported to be cultivated. The output characteristics (44.2% and 48.5% respectively, in case of normal and spring rice), dominated by yield were the main concern for adopting improved varieties. But, for dropping an improved normal rice variety, output characteristics (60%), dominated by straw traits were important, because straw constituted an important material for fodder, thatching roofs and weaving a ride range of mats and mattresses. For not trying, lack of technical know-how, followed by lack of improved seed in case of normal rice and lack of extension activities, followed by lack of technical know-how in case of spring rice were major concerns. Overall, farmers preferred local verities in both normal and spring rice. Besides, less lodging in normal rice and easier threshing and good cooking qualities in spring rice were important characteristics of improved varieties. In upland rice, less nutrient requirement and higher productivity were highly preferred criteria, followed by early maturity, higher milling recovery and finer grain quality were the major criteria for selecting a variety. The level of household adoption of improved varieties (55.2%) was good in normal rice, but, it was moderate (32.9%) in spring rice. The adoption was higher in research sites and proximal areas than on-farm sites. The average areas occupied by improved varieties among sampled households were respectively, 30.4% and 25.4% in normal and spring rice. Thus, research implications lie in developing breeding strategy in line with the extent of replacement of local verities, by taking into consideration the multiple requirements of the adopting farmers' participatory approach for developing methods and practices. Quality attributes i.e. non-yield parameters should be taken into consideration as screening criteria in breeding programmes. More emphasis should be laid on straw traits of normal rice than in the past, by retaining the superior traits of improved varieties. It would be worthwhile to investigate the genetic base making the varieties suitable for a wide range of agro-ecological environmental conditions. Development implications lie in involvement of farmers in the process of seed production and technology dissemination. Some policy and institutional reforms should be undertaken for easy availability of agricultural inputs, frequent contact with extension workers, increased involvement in farmers' group/co-operatives and increased use of institutional credit. It would be worthwhile to put emphasis on reducing labour intensity while developing / selecting improved varieties and agronomic practices. Farmers’ accessibility to technology and inputs need to be enhanced, for which it may be required to educate them to understand the technology.

Marketing of Mandarin Orange in the Western Hills of Nepal: Constraints and Potentials

Shrestha, B and R. L Shrestha. (2000). Marketing of Mandarin Orange in the Western Hills of Nepal: Constraints and Potentials. Lumle Seminar Paper No. 2000/14. Paper presented at the Third National Horticultural Workshop organised by Horticultural Research Division, NARC from 7–8 June 2000 in Kathmandu, Nepal.

A rapid marketing appraisal on mandarin orange was undertaken in the major production pockets and local markets of western hill districts in the research command area of Agricultural Research Station, Lumle and some nearby wholesale markets during the production season (October/November to January/February) of FYs 1998/99 and 1999/2000, to identify the marketing constraints and potentials. The study was undertaken with different marketing functionaries like producers, contractors, wholesalers, retailers and cold store owners by using semi-structured and open -ended questionnaires. Besides, district market management authorities were also consulted. The study reveals that the current marketing system is rudimentary in nature thereby leading to seasonal glut and chaotic market price, mainly for lack of specialised/professionalized marketing function and functionaries, small-scale and scattered nature of production, appropriate post-harvesting technologies, transportation facilities, and market supporting and facilitating services. Export potentials have remained almost unexplored. Thus, the research and development implications lie in consolidation of scattered production system on market-shed approach, development of collection centers and mobilization of farmers' group for developing commercial mandarin orange production system. Appropriate post-harvest technology packages and packaging materials need to be explored and post-harvest losses reduction programme should be undertaken. Special legal and physical arrangements are to be made for the transportation of agricultural produce. Cold storage systems and cellar store technologies should be carried out. Research needs to be undertaken for developing varieties fruiting at different times. Wholesale and retail markets are to be established in major market centers in active participation of private sectors and market supporting and facilitating services need to be strengthened for domestic and export market promotion.

Economic Analysis of Two Cycles of Fertiliser Application in Long-term Soil Fertility Experiments on Rice-Wheat, Maize-Millet and Upland Rice-Blackgra

Shrestha, B. (1999). Economic Analysis of Two Cycles of Fertiliser Application in Long-term Soil Fertility Experiments on Rice-Wheat, Maize-Millet and Upland Rice-Blackgram Systems in the Western Hills. Lumle Seminar Paper No. 99/7. Paper presented at soil fertility workshop, jointly organised by NARC and Reading University, UK from 25 - 26 July 1999 at Dhulikhel, Kavre District. Kathmandu. Kaski, Nepal: Agricultural Research Station, Lumle.

An economic analysis of fertiliser application over non-application was carried out on the basis of two cycles (1997/98 and 1998/99) of long-term soil fertility experiments conducted on rice-wheat system at Chambas and Pakuwa, maize-millet system at Dor Dor Gaun and upland rice-blackgram system at Dor Dor Tar. The data on the economic parameters under study and the information on the human labour required for applying fertilisers were collected during the field survey conducted in May 1999. The analysis revealed that the farmers' practices of applying inorganic fertilisers at the rate of 50:15:15 kg N:P:K/ha, 80:15:15 kg N:P:K/ha, 90:30:30 kg N:P:K/ha and 40:15:15 kg N:P:K/ha respectively, in rice, wheat, maize and upland rice resulted in the highest net returns over non-application i.e. control, whereas the farmers' practices of applying organic fertilisers to supply the same quantity of nitrogen in above crops were economically not profitable over control. That was because of lesser quantity of inorganic fertilisers and human labour required for broadcasting in the form of basal dose at the time of land preparation and for top dressing with nitrogen, unlike the application of farmyard manure (FYM) which required relatively greater quantity of biomass and human labour required for portage from the place of origin (livestock shed) to the land under cultivation and incorporation in the soil. However, in the long run there could be lesser returns from the application of inorganic fertilisers due to degradation in the physical and chemical properties of soil thereby leading to decreasing crop productivity. Thus, the future research on FYM should be directed towards enhancing the economic uses of FYM so that the significant net returns could be generated.

Baseline and Need Identification Survey of Agro-Ecological Research Sites Representing from River Basins to High Hills in Western Nepal

Nepali, M. B. and B. Shrestha (1999). Baseline and Need Identification Survey of Agro-Ecological Research Sites Representing from River Basins to High Hills in Western Nepal. Lumle Seminar Paper No. 99/5. Paper presented at the First Conference of Society of Agricultural Scientist (SAS)/Nepal held from 9 - 11 June 1999. Kaski, Nepal: Agricultural Research Station, Lumle.

The baseline and need identification survey of agro-ecological research sites at Chambas, Maduwa, Chhahara and Bhakimle representing from river basin to high hill domains respectively, was carried out at different periods from February to 14 May 1998. The participatory rural appraisal was the main technique of data collection. The survey results reveal that the sites are located not so far from road heads. Rainfall pattern is almost similar at all the sites with monsoon generally running from June/July to September/October. The ethnic composition at all the sites are mixed with dominance of Tamang (37%) at Chambas, Brahmin (40%) at Maduwa, Chhetri (32%) at Chhahara and Magars (83.5%) at Bhakimli respectively. Higher proportion of farmers belongs to food sufficient group at Chambas (35%), Maduwa (40%), whereas the deficit farmers are dominants at Chhahara (51%) and Bhakimle (55%) respectively. Selling of food is the main source of income among food surplus farmers, whereas majority of food sufficient and deficit farmers are engaged in off-farm activities. The literacy and educational attainment increase with the food self-sufficiency levels. The proportion of Bari land is high. Red soil is the most prevalent soil in types of lands. The Khet cropping pattern is rice based whereas Bari cropping pattern is maize base. Rice, wheat, maize, potato, millet and barley are the major food crops grown at all sites. Buffalo, cattle, goats and fowl are the major livestock types. Thatched grass is the major source of fee item at Chambas (34%), Maduwa (42%), Chhahara (60%), whereas crops residues (50%) are the main sources at Bhakimle, Tanki at Chambas, Bedulo at Maduwa, Phosro at Chhahara and Chuletro and Khanyum at Bhakimle are the major fodder trees. Blast in rice and yellow rust and sterility in wheat are the major diseases. Stem borer, white grub and red ant are the major pests in rice, millet, maize and potato respectively. FMD, infertility and mastatis are the major disease in large rudiments and white diarrhoea and ranikhet are in fowl.

Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Adoption of Cellar Store as a Post Harvest Technology for Mandarin Orange in the Western Hills of Nepal

Shrestha, B, P. P. Subedi and J. J. Thapa (1998). Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Adoption of Cellar Store as a Post Harvest Technology for Mandarin Orange in the Western Hills of Nepal. LARC Working Paper 98/(34). Kaski, Nepal: Lumle Agricultural Research Centre.

An adoption study on cellar store (CS) for mandarin oranges (MOs) was carried out at six locations at the household level and one location at the community level in the research command area of Lumle Agricultural Research Centre during February - April 1998. The households producing mandarin oranges for marketing at the sites were stratified into mutually exclusive categories on the basis of food self-sufficiency levels and 30% households were sampled by using stratified proportionate sampling method. Household survey was used to identify the level and distribution of adoption profile classified as: not aware, not having tried and having adopted. The reasons for not trying and for adopting the technology, and suggestions to improve the technology for better adoption were also identified. PRA technique was used to identify and stratify the farmers and to identify the problems and prospects associated with CS, whereas case studies were carried out to find the past and present status of the CS. To determine the distribution of adoption, a set of bio-physical and socio-economic factors were developed as: agro-ecological zone, sex of the household head, caste/ethnicity, education of the household head, food self-sufficiency, mandarin orange production, accessibility, marketability, consumers' preference.

Only 10% (household level) and 57.1% (community level) of the sample households had adopted the CS. Caste/ethnicity, food self-sufficiency and mandarin orange production at the household level and education of the household head and food self-sufficiency at the community level showed statistically significant effect on adoption profile respectively. The level of awareness was good at the household (94.3%) and community (85.7%) levels. Lack of technical know-how was the dominant constraint followed by low production and low economic status as important constraints to not-trying the technology. CS technology, being a newly introduced innovation was adopted by all who tried it for the first time. However, the farmers were not in a position to decide whether to continue or drop it in future. Profitability was the main concern followed by high production and good technical support as subsequent important concerns for adopting at the household level and good community solidarity and profitability were the major concerns at the community level. Training for the farmers and good technical support were the major improvements to be made at the household level whereas good roofing to avoid dew drops and good treatment of mandarin orange before storing were the improvements to be made at the community level for better adoption.

Baseline and Need Identification Survey of Agro-Ecological Research Site at Maduwa, Syangja Representing Low Hills in Western Nepal

Nepali, M. B., B. Shrestha, R. P. Bari and K. N. Dhakal (1998). Baseline and Need Identification Survey of Agro-Ecological Research Site at Maduwa, Syangja Representing Low Hills in Western Nepal. LARC Working Paper 98/33. Kaski, Nepal: Lumle Agricultural Research Centre.

A baseline and need identification survey was carried out at agro-ecological research (AER) site representing low hill environments of Lumle Agricultural Research Centre (LARC) located at Maduwa in Syangja district, from 1-5 March 1998. The Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) technique was used to establish benchmark information on bio-physical, socio-economic, institutional and farming constraints, farmers' needs and researchable problems, which are required to carry out agricultural research on more representative problems, monitoring regular changes and evaluating the impacts of research activities.Almost 83% of annual rainfall used to occur from May through September and maximum hailstone used to occur in June followed by May, November and April. The total population of the site was 696 with dominance of Brahmins (37%) followed by occupational castes, Chhetris and Gurungs. Most of the households belonged to food sufficient group (40%) followed by food deficit group (38%) and surplus group (22%). Rice and maize followed by millet were commonly consumed food staples. Cereals from on-farm, and service and pension from off-farm were the main source of income. Relatively, women were involved in all the farming activities except ploughing the land. Of 100 ha of cultivated, Bari land occupied 57 ha with an average holding of 0.73 ha and Khetland occupied 43 ha with an average holding equal to 0.55 ha. Red soil was the most prevalent soil followed by black and dull white soil types. Rice-wheat-fallow was the principal cropping pattern in Khetland whereas maize-miller-fallow was the predominant cropping pattern in Bariland. Rice, wheat, maize and barley were the principal cereal crops produced at the site. Soybean was the commonly grown grain legume followed by cowpea, blackgram and beans. Broadleaf mustard was the widely grown vegetables in the winter season whereas in summer season, sponge gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd, bean, tomato were commonly grown. Orange was the most commonly grown fruit. Buffalo and bullock were the most important livestock followed by goat and fowl. Rice straw, maize stalk, maize husk, maize thinings, millet straw, wheat straw, fodder and thatched grasses were the principal livestock feed besides concentrated feed used to be provided to the lactating buffaloes. Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) was the most commonly preferred fodder source. The general problems of the site were blast and stem borer in rice, yellow rust, Phalaris minor wee in wheat grub in maize, stern borer and black beetle in millet, red ant in potato, FMD and liverfluke in small and large ruminants, infertility in buffalo, ranikhet in fowl and scarcity of fodder during winter season. The needs of the farmers were high yielding and good taste varieties of potato, saplings of mango, orange and lemon, infertility treatment for buffalo, buffalo breed, rabbit rearing and samplings of fodder trees like Badahar, Kutmiro, etc.

Forest Management Practices and Socio-Economic Determinants in Commercial Utilisation of Chiuri in a Chepang Community

Shrestha, B. (1997). Forest Management Practices and Socio-Economic Determinants in Commercial Utilisation of Chiuri in a Chepang Community. M. A. Thesis in Sociology. Kathmandu, Nepal: Tribhuvan University.

The dissertation entitled "Forest Management Practices and Socio-Economic Determinants in Commercial Utilisation of Chiuri in a Chepang Community" was prepared in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Master' Degree in Sociology under the supervision of Mr. Binod Pokhrel, a lecturer in the Central Department of Sociology / Anthropology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal.

The primary focus of this research was to study the forest management practices in relation to protection, harvesting, distribution, planting, subsistent use and the trading practices of the Chepangs in Kosrang village, Jogimara VDC of Dhading district, and to study in detail the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents including age, education, household size, land holding size, land tenure, and livestock holding, and analyse the affecting factors in commercial utilisation of Chiuri.

The study was conducted during December 1995 in Kosrang village of ward number 5 of Jogimara village development committee of Dhading district. From the selected village of a total of 55 households (50 Chepang households), a total of 25 Chepang respondents were selected and interviewed.

The Descriptive Research Design was resorted to study the forest management practices whereas an Ex-Post Facto Research Design was resorted to study the socio-economic determinants in commercial utilisation of Chiuri. The systematic sampling technique was used to select the respondents. For collecting information from the selected respondents a structured household interview schedule was developed particularly on the socio-economic factors affecting the commercial utilisation of Chiuri. The rapid rural appraisal (RRA) technique by utilising a checklist and a key information survey particularly focusing on the local knowledgeable people was resorted to find out the forest management practices in commercial utilisation of Chiuri.

Collected data was analysed by using frequency, percentages, means and standard deviation. The relationship between independent and dependent variables were analysed by using Karl Pearson's coefficient, t-test and Chi-Square test.

The findings of this research revealed that although Chiuri had been playing a viral role as the means of subsistence among the Chepangs since time immemorial, the forest management practices in respect of protection, harvesting, distribution, planting, organising, using for different purposes and trading were not seen to be well developed, sustainable and directed towards commercial utilisation of Chiuri, because of its low contribution to their household income, low economic condition of the Chepangs, hard labour, fruiting problem and drawing their attention towards other sources of income like tomato cultivation, seeking employment opportunities, etc.

The biodiversity of the research area seemed to be at good condition because of less use of forest resources for different purposes due to poor economic condition and lack of water resources for drinking purposes and irrigation facilities. But, the people were keenly interested in forest management and Chiuri development by forming user groups because of possibility of deforestation by the people from adjoining villages.

The factors viz. age, education, household size, household income, land holding, livestock holding had been taken as the independent socio-economic variables and studied relatively with commercial utilisation of Chiuiri as the dependent variable. Chi-Square test was used to analyse the relationship between education and the commercial utilisation of Chiuri at 0.05 level of significance whereas t-test was used to anlyse the interrelationship between the age, household size, household income, land holding and livestock holding and commercial utilisation of Chiuri, which meant the afore-mentioned social factors were not responsible for commercial utilisation of Chiuri. However, the commercial utilisation of Chiuri could not be expected provided socio-economic conditions.
Chiuri has become an important natural endowment to the Chepangs. Chiuri protection and its commercial utilisation area possible if different opportunities, possibilities utilising Chiuri products are prevailed in the country so that the local people will be encouraged to manage and improve their forest practices towards better management and fruiting. Hence, it is hereby recommended to involve indigenous people like Chepangs in Chiuri development activities, implement integrated development programs, motivate the people towards use of other non-timber forest products and develop water resources as a rural infrastructure so that different opportunities will be generated in which Chiuri products will have high value and at the same time, the forest management practices so far prevailing among the Chepangs of Kosrang village will be directed towards commercial utilisation of Chiuiri. Besides, the social factors studied during this thesis preparation and others are to be analysed and treated in order to attract them towards more production and use of Chiuri and Chiuri products in order to maintain their indigenuity and uplift their economic status.